underestimating effect size

How Do Confounding Variables Impact Effect Size?

Confounding variables are external factors that are related to both the exposure and the outcome. If these are not properly controlled, they can obscure the true relationship between the variables of interest. This often results in an underestimation of the true effect size. For example, in a study examining the relationship between physical activity and heart disease, failure to account for dietary habits could lead to biased results.

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