Several criteria, known as Bradford Hill criteria, are used to establish causality:
Strength of Association: A strong association is more likely to indicate a causal relationship. Consistency: The association is observed in different studies and populations. Specificity: The cause leads to a specific effect. Temporal Relationship: The cause precedes the effect. Biological Gradient: A dose-response relationship is observed. Plausibility: The relationship is biologically plausible. Coherence: The association is consistent with existing knowledge. Experiment: Removal of the exposure leads to a reduction in the risk of the outcome. Analogy: Similar relationships have been observed with other exposures and outcomes.
