Establishing causality involves several criteria, such as:
Strength of Association: Stronger associations are more likely to be causal. Consistency: Repeated observations of the association in different studies. Specificity: The association is specific to a particular disease-exposure relationship. Temporality: The exposure must precede the disease. Biological Gradient: A dose-response relationship between exposure and disease. Plausibility: The association is biologically plausible. Coherence: The association is consistent with existing knowledge.
