Adverse effects are detected through various methods: 1. Clinical Trials: Initial detection often occurs during clinical trials where treatments are tested on a small group of individuals. 2. Post-Marketing Surveillance: Once a treatment is approved, ongoing monitoring helps in identifying any long-term or rare adverse effects. 3. Epidemiological Studies: These include case-control studies, cohort studies, and cross-sectional studies which help in identifying correlations and potential causations.
