What are Some Challenges in Establishing Causal Links?

Several challenges can complicate the establishment of causal links:

- Confounding: Other variables may affect both the exposure and the outcome, making it difficult to establish a direct cause-effect relationship.
- Bias: Selection bias, information bias, and other types can skew results and misinterpret the relationship between exposure and outcome.
- Ethical Concerns: Conducting RCTs for certain exposures (e.g., smoking, radiation) is often unethical, limiting the ability to directly test causality.