Epidemiologists use various methods to test these assumptions:
Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs): These are considered the gold standard for testing causality because they minimize bias and confounding. Cohort Studies: These follow a group of people over time to see if the exposure precedes the outcome, thereby testing temporality. Case-Control Studies: These compare individuals with the outcome (cases) to those without it (controls) to identify potential exposures. Meta-Analyses: These combine results from multiple studies to assess consistency and strengthen the evidence of an association.
